Strategies for Nation Building

Strategies for Nation Building CHAPTER THREE INTRODUCTION 2.1 Defining nation The term nation is hard to define. Therefore various scholars have come up with different definitions of the term nation. Karlsson (2009) sees a nation as a birthmark. A nation can be described as an idea searching for a reality which a minority often violently forced upon a majority with standardization as a goal and with an iron glove as an instrument to eradicate previous diversity. Nations are constructed and invented. Nation is defined as mobilizing ideology in force that is used to concientise the masses against any kind of oppression or resistance that might be seen as opposing feature. The order of precedence of the factors that characterize a nation has always been a subject to discussion ranging from mutual traditions and collective political awareness, common antecedents, affiliation to a tribe or people, joint territory, customs and language, culture and religion. The inhabitants of a country are a nation despite their different languages and cultures. Karl Proper, the philosopher, stated at the Second World War that â€Å"it has been said that a race is a collection of people who are united by their origin but by a common misconception about their antecedents†. Karlsson compares this to a nation as he states that a nation is a collection of people united by a common misconception about their history. Thus, nations are not eternally defined entities, but they are in fact created. Nationalism invents nations where they do not exist Anderson (1990), Smith (1990) and Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2007) are of the view that a nation is an imagined community where members share the same history and envision reality in the same way. It is synonymous with self determination for those who have the good fortune to live in a society which has its own history, language, culture and religion but it can also be xenophobic, intolerant, aggressive, hegemonic and authotarian, lacking the will and ability to allow others what the nation claims for. Renan (1882) was concerned in that nation affinity was not a question of race, religion place of birth, but instead was a matter of daily referendum. A nation is based on all individuals having something in common. A nation is a spiritual principle with its origins in the deep complexity of history, an intellectual family not only by sacrifices one has made and those that one is disposed to make again. It supposes a past; it renews itself particularly in the present by a tangible deed, the approval, the desire, clearly expressed to continue the daily life. The existence of a nation is a referendum. Nationalism can be defined as the process of identity making can be best understood in the words of Reicher and Hopkins. This understanding of nationalism is further amplified by a British Labor politician who likened nationalism to electricity that can be used for good and bad purposes. He continued that it can electrocute someone in the electric chair or it can heat and light the world adding that: â€Å"Nationalism can be exhilarating revolutionary force for progress but we only have to open our newspapers today to areas where nationalism becomes in the wrong hands. A primeval force of darkness and reaction†¦ I can say originally, we ought to utilize the potential revolutionary force of nationalism by our readership to ensure that the dark side does not emerge† Nationalism can be manipulated to serve one interests. Hence this nationalism can be hegemonies as the elites can influence nationalism for their own good and suppress the lower class in the process. 2.1 Defining nation building Nation building is a highly complex term that means different things to different people. Nation building is evolutionary as it takes time and is a social process that cannot be achieved from outside. The notion of nation is used in a different way. It can be used not to challenge the existing territorial and political order, but to create a sense of national unity for a given polity. This sort of work is often called nation b building. Zolberg (1967:461) notes that nation building takes predominance over all tasks including economic development. This implies that nation building involves the political development, social development and economical development in a nation. In the African context, Young (2004) noted how â€Å"innumerable rituals of state drummed the national idea into the public consciousness: national holidays, national anthems, and daily flag raising ceremonies at all administrative headquarters. In a dozen banal ways, the nation was subliminally communicated through its ubiquitous flag, its currency, its postage stamps, its identity cards.† Soon after independence African states created their national holidays, national anthems, changed their country names from colonial names and had their own currency. In way this helped to build nation as everything had to be nationalized to suit the African society. Nation building is whereby a society with diverse origins, cultures, histories, languages and religion come together within the boundaries of a sovereign state with a unified constitutional and legal dispensation, a national public education system an integrated national economy, shared symbols and values, as equals, to work towards eradicating the divisions and injustices of the past, to foster unity and promote a country wide consciousness of proudly Africans promoted to the country and open to the continent and the world. Nation building by www.usip.org is not just about the physical construction service provision or material wealth. It is also about using the country’s shared customs to prevent further escalation of conflict as well as upholding values, customs, traditional practices that can be enshrined in national identity. In other words, a nation is not the sum of material possessions. Rather people are the most important asserts that, they are the nation and how each citizen behaves becomes the reflection of nation’s characters. The best way for the nation to hold itself to its own standards is to teach the youngest citizens to remind everyone of whom they are as people. The following section will be looking at the processes of nation building with relation to print media. 3.2 Process of nation building 3.2.1 Sports Sport is an aspect of nation building. Riordan stresses that it is overt that sport in many societies is a serious business with serious functions to perform. It is accordingly, state controlled, encouraged and shaped by specific Unitarian and ideological designs. It is by no means a matter of fun and games. Riordan further points out that in Africa, Asia and Latin America, sports development is closely associated with hygiene, health, defence, patriotism, integration, productivity, international recognition, even cultural, identity and nation building. Sport therefore has a role of being an agent of social change with the state as the pilot. During the twentieth century nearly sixty new states have been established. Houlihan states that many of these new states were faced with the acute problem of establishing a sense of national identity. For former colonies it meant that they were the enemies of the newly independent nations. Maguire argues sport could form one of the significant arenas by which nations become more real. Particular sports came to symbolize the nation. The close bind of sport with national identification arenas by which nations become more real. Particular sports come to symbolize the nation. Sport can forge and reinforce community or national identities. It can foster also unity among societies. In particular attention to Zimbabwe, every year during the independence celebrations there is the uhuru cup whereby local soccer teams contest for the cup. Soccer is used to foster unity among a nation. In celebrating Independence Day, sports are used for entertainment and also fostering unity. With the regard to the use of sports for nation building, Houlihan points out that modern state want not only national unity and distinctiveness but also an international stage on which to project that identity utilizing an increasing common array of cultural symbols to demonstrate their individuality. In cases like Olympics when one individual is victorious in any of the games, the national anthem is sung and the flag is raised. Success in sports events and particularly by the hosting of sports events provides a benign and uncritical backdrop of the parade of national achievement (Dauncey and Hare 1993). They go on to point that the victory of France in the 1998, football World Cup save a great opportunity to demonstrate public services, values, successful French integration and traditional French values in the international arena.

Would a common definition of terrorism have helped to combat terrorism in the Arab uprising in relation to Syria?

Abstract There is much difficulty when it comes to establishing what a terrorist actually is because of the lack of definition that exists on an international level. The difference between a terrorist and a freedom fighter cannot easily be identified as a result of this, which prevents the War on Terror from being adequately dealt with. Nevertheless, it is questionable whether a definition would prove effective given that different interpretations of terrorism exist amongst the international community. Introduction The definition of terrorism has been subject to much controversy over the years because of the different interpretations that exist. Accordingly, terrorism is viewed differently by governmental agencies and under various legal systems. It is has been argued that because of the conflictions that exist within this area, a common definition of terrorism needs to be adopted by the international community (Sorel, 2003). Terrorism occurs on an international level and unless consensus exists within this area, difficulties will continue to ensue when trying to combat terrorism. It would be highly beneficial if a universal definition was employed as there would be much more consistency and terrorist acts would be more easily identified (Webster, 2011). Terrorism has been defined by Hoffman as â€Å"the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change† (1998: 32). Terrorism is present whenever there is the threat of violence or violence itself which is intended to have physical and emotional effects upon victims. It has also been suggested that â€Å"terrorists seek to obtain the leverage, influence and power they otherwise lack to effect political change on either a local or an international scale† (Hoffman, 1998: 32). Despite these interpretations, it is still extremely difficult to determine whether a person is committing an act of terrorism. This essay will consider in light of this whether a common definition of terrorism have helped to combat terrorism in the Arab uprising in relation to Syria. Defining Terrorism Consequently, terrorists are capable of being mistaken for freedom fighters who merely seek to achieve political freedom by taking part in a â€Å"resistance movement against an oppressive political or social establishment† (Webster, 2011: 1). Freedom fighters include the likes of the South African Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) who were both labelled freedom fighters on the basis that they fought against national governments for freedom (Webster, 2011). There is, nonetheless, a fine line between terrorists and freedom fighters because of the fact that they both act in a similar manner and so it is imperative that a distinction can be made between the two (Raport, 2013). Gioia (2006) further notes that this is difficult to achieve in practice and terrorists are capable of escaping liability on the grounds that they are freedom fighters. Whilst one jurisdiction may consider a person a terrorist another jurisdiction may consider the same person a free dom fighter. It has thus been argued that; â€Å"one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter† (Buchanan, 2004: 1). This makes it extremely difficult to remain consistent within this area of the law and highlights the need for a universal definition of terrorism. As put by Rosand; â€Å"the General Assembly’s inability to reach agreement on a definition of terrorism after nearly thirty-five years of discussions in one form or another has limited the impact of its counterterrorism efforts† (2006: 399). Terrorism and Syria Conflictions will continue to exist unless a universal definition is adopted and terrorism will remain difficult to combat. This has been exemplified by the Arab uprising in relation to Syria since the Syrian Arab Republic has been considered both a victim of terrorism as well as a perpetrator. The Syrian government has thus been accused by the US State Department and George W. Bush of sponsoring acts of terrorism for organisations like Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad and the Popular Struggle Front (Diane, 1995: 19). However, because of the uncertainty surrounding the definition of terrorism it has proven very difficult for the Syrian government to be properly sanctioned. As argued by Rapport; â€Å"the case of Syria illustrates how the concept of state-sponsored terrorism, and evidence for it, lacks clarity and is used politically† (2013: 238). It was demonstrated by officials of the United States that whilst the actions of the Syrian government were much more professional a nd deadly than Libya’s, the evidence that links Syria to direct acts of violence is murky (New York Times, 1986: 1). Despite these uncertainties, the US government continues to publish lists of the number of terrorists incidents that have occurred in Syria (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, 2013: 4). However, because Syria has continued to support the US and other governments in their opposition to the al-Qaeda, there has been a reluctance to name Syria as a sponsor state (Diaz-Paniagua, 2008). It has been said that this is the result of a necessity to obtain the assistance of Syria when negotiating the release of British, US and French citizens that are being held hostage in the Middle East (Dettmer, 2014: 1). Syria is thereby a vital component for the establishment of peace within this area, which is why it has proven difficult to combat terrorism in Syria. It is clear from these findings that there is sufficient evidence to name Syria as a terrorist sponsor, yet because of Syria’s political connections there has been a refusal to do so. Arguably, a common definition of terrorism would therefore have done nothing to prevent the terrorist actions from being conducted in the Arab uprising in relation to Syria since there is a political reluctance to name Syria as a terrorist sponsor. It has been noted in view of this that it would be â€Å"naive to think that there are laws in war† (Al-Saadi, 2013: 1), which is certainly true here. Although a common definition would be better overall in providing certainty, it is questionable whether it would in fact help to combat terrorism. Furthermore, because of the fact that different states view terrorism differently, a common definition would restrict the ability of states to identify terrorism on a case by case basis. This was identified by Sorel when it was pointed out that; â€Å"the problem facing a global definition is the difficulty in taking account of special circumstances according to the type of action committed, the nature of the victims or the type of method of the terrorist action† (2003: 365). Consideration as to whether a definition is needed was made by the Security Council in September 2001 during the adoption of Resolution 1373 and it was concluded that; â€Å"one shouldn’t try to define terrorism in order to reach a quick agreement; to do so runs the risk of getting into deeper and deeper water† (2001: 1). This signifies that because terrorism acts are so wide-ranging, it would be difficult to incorporate a definition that would be able to comprehend every single act of terrorism. Flexibility is therefore vital within this area, yet because of the confusions that arise when trying to distinguish between a terrorist and a freedom fighter, it is necessary to have some conformity. This was identified by Saul who stated that there is a â€Å"need to condemn violations to Human rights, to protect the state and deliberative politics, to differentiate public and private violence, and to ensure international peace and security† (2008: 1). It is unlikely t hat these objectives can be achieved without a common definition since it is necessary that terrorist actions can be identified and distinguished against the actions of a freedom fighter (Diaz-Paniagua, 2008: 47). It remains arguable whether a definition would in fact be workable given the reluctance to name Syria as a sponsor of terrorism and some have suggested to define terrorism would prevent a sectoral approach towards terrorism to be employed. As put forward by Gioia; â€Å"a definition would only be necessary if the punishment of the relevant offences were made conditional on the existence of a specific terrorist intent† (2006: 4). Many would in fact disagree with this statement on the basis that much of the complexity that exists when trying to combat terrorism is the result of the lack of consensus within this area. Hence, the current approach that is being employed by the international community does not appear satisfactory and attempts to clarify the meaning of terrorism are continuously being made. An example of this can be seen in relation to the definition that was provided by the League of Nations Convention of 1937 under Article 1.1. Under this definition an act of terrorism was described as a â€Å"criminal act directed against a State and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public.† The United Nations General A ssembly also provided under Article 2.1 of the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that a terrorist is defined as someone who causes; â€Å"death or serious bodily injury; serious damage to public or private property; or damage to property, places, facilities, or systems likely to result in major economic loss† (2002: 1). Effectively, it is evident that attempts to define terrorism have and will continue to be made, yet whether there will ever be complete consensus in this area is doubtful and it cannot be said that a definition would have helped to combat terrorism that is being committed by Syria. Conclusion Overall, whilst it is clear that a definition of terrorism is needed in order to provide clarity within this area, it cannot be said that a common definition would have helped to combat terrorism in the Arab uprising in relation to Syria. This is due to the political reluctance to name Syria as a sponsor of terrorism regardless of the evidence to the contrary. Furthermore, it has also been suggested that flexibility needs to remain in this area so that terrorism can be determined on a sectoral basis. Hence, not every country will view terrorist actions the same and so a determination will need to be based on a case by case basis in order to prevent confliction. Regardless of this, there is still a pressing need to provide some conformity within this area, which is why the international community have made great attempts to provide a universal definition. References Al-Saadi, Y. (2013) ‘The Rise of the Arab ‘War on Terror’ Discourse’, [Online], Available: http://muftah.org/the-rise-of-the-arab-war-on-terror-discourse/ [26 March 2014]. Buchanan, P. J. ‘Terrorists – and Freedom Fighters?’ AntiWar, [Online], Available: http://antiwar.com/pat/?articleid=2141 [26 March 2014]. Dettmer, J. (2014) ‘Holding Aid Hostage Syria’, Middle East Institute, [Online], Available: http://www.mei.edu/content/holding-aid-hostage-syria [26 March 2014]. Diaz-Paniagua, C.F. (2008) Negotiating Terrorism: The Negotiation Dynamics of Four UN Counter-Terrorism Treaties 1997-2005, City University of New York. Diane Publishing. (1995) Patterns of Global Terrorism, Diane Publishing. Gioia, A. (2006) The UN Conventions on the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism in Nesi, G. International Co-operation in Counter-Terrorism: The United Nations and Regional Organisations in the Fight Against Terrorism. Hoffman, B. (1998) Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press. National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2013) ‘Annex of Statistical Information’ Country Reports on Terrorism, [Online], Available: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210288.pdf [27 March 2014]. Raport, D. C. (2013) Inside Terrorist Organisations, Routledge. Rosand, E. (2006) ‘The UN-Led Multilateral Institutional Response to Jihadist Terrorism: Is a Global Counterterrorism Body Needed’, Journal of Conflict and Security Law, C&S Law 2006 11 (399), Issue 3. Saul, B. (2008) Defining Terrorism to Protect Human Rights, Sydney Law School Legal Studies, Research Paper No 08-125. Security Council. (2001) Le Terrorisme est un totalitarisme, Le Monde. Sorel, J. (2003) ‘Some Questions About the Definition of Terrorism and the Fight Against Its Financing’, European Journal of International Law, EJIL 2003 14 (365), Issue 2. The New York Times. (1986) ‘Evidence of Syrian Link to Terror still Murky’, [Online], Available: http://www.nytimes.com/1986/06/10/world/evidence-of-syrian-link-to-terror-still-murky.html [26 March 2014]. United Nations General Assembly. (2002) ‘Report of the Ad Hoc Committee established by General Assembly Resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996’, Sixth Session, Annex II, art 2.1. Webster, M. (2011) ‘Freedom Fighter’, An Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, [Online], Available: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/freedom%20fighter [26 March 2014].

Heroism as the Main Theme of Beowulf Essay - 2557 Words

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In this sense he is like Hamlet in the last act of Shakespeares play, who is finally ready to avenge the death of his father. Like Hamlet, Beowulf is determined to play out his role as it is appointed for him, whatever the cost to himself. He faces up to his destiny, his fate, without flinching. By doing so he makes himself an exemplar for not only the Geats in a long-gone heroic society, but for the modern reader too.O:P/O:P Blood-FeudsO:P Although Beowulf is in some respects a Christian poem, its social code emphasizes justice rather than mercy. The code of the warrior society is a simple but harsh one. It is blood for blood. If there is killing, the clan that has suffered must exact revenge. Since feuds between different clans break out regularly, the effect is to create a never-ending process of retaliation. 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Eli Lilly And Company- Outline Essay - 2041 Words

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